Theories and Models of Communication

This time we will provide references on Theories and Models of communication, in this article there are many theories and models of communication that can help you all in communication, be it at the office, campus, or within the family environment.

1. Theory Behaviorism

This flow figures are John B. Watson (1878 - 1958) that in the United States known as the father of behaviorism. The theory focuses attention on aspects of perceived directly on language behavior and the relationship between stimulus and response to the world around him. According to this theory, all behavior, including follow-back (response) caused by the stimulation. If the stimulus has been observed and known then countered motion can be predicted. John B. Watson also firmly rejected the influence of instinct (instinct) and awareness of behavior. So every behavior can be studied according to the relationship between stimulus and response.

Behaviorism was born as a reaction to introspectionism and psychoanalysis. Behaviorism want to analyze only the visible behavior alone, which can be measured, described, and predictable. Later, the theory of the better known behaviorist learning theory, because according to them the whole human behavior except instinct is the result of learning. Learning means to change the behavior of the organism as environmental influences. Behaviorism is not willing to question whether human good or bad, rational or emotional; behaviorism just want to know how the behavior is controlled by environmental factors. From this arises the concept of "human machine" (Homo Mechanicus).

2. Theory of Humanism

This theory appears inspired by developments in psychology is the psychology of Humanism. In accordance opinions expressed by McNeil (1977) "In many instances, communicative language have incorporated educational Programmes based on humanistic phylosophies psychology or view the which in the context of goals for other subject areas has been called 'the humanistic curriculum".

Humanism in language teaching theory ever implemented in a language teaching curriculum with the curriculum Humanistic term applied in North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This curriculum emphasizes the division of supervision and responsibility shared between all student learners. Curiculum humanistic emphasis on patterns of thought, feeling and behavior of students by connecting the material taught in the basic needs and the needs of student life. This theory assumes that every student as learning objects have different reasons to learn a language. The main objective of this theory is to improve students' ability to be able to develop in society. The deepest goal or purpose is to develop the whole persons within a human society. (McNeil, 1977)

3. Information or Mathematical Theory

One of the classical communication theory that greatly affect subsequent communication theories are mathematical information theory or theories. This theory is a form of elaboration of the work of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949, Weaver. 1949), Mathematical Theory of Communication.

This theory see communication as mechanistic phenomena, mathematical, and informative: communication as transmission of a message and how to use the transmitter channels and communication media. This is one clear example of school processes which saw the code as a means to construct a message and translate it (encoding and decoding).

The information theory focuses attention on a number of signal points passing through the channel or medium in the communication process. This is very useful in the application of electrical systems today are designing the transmitter, receiver, and code to facilitate the efficiency of information.

4. Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda setting theory was introduced by McCombs and Shaw DL (1972). The assumption of this theory is that if the media put pressure on an event, then the media will affect the audience to consider it important. So what is considered important media, it is important also for the community. In this case the medium is assumed to have a very powerful effect, especially as it relates to the assumption of the learning process rather than by changes in attitudes and opinions.

5. Uses and Gratification Theory

This theory was first introduced by Herbert Blumer and Elihu Katz (1974). This theory says that the media play an active role users to choose and use the media. In other words, the user media is an active party in the communication process. Media users trying to find a good source of most media in business needs. This means that users have the option of alternative media to satisfy their needs.

6. Dependencies Effect Mass Communication Theory

This theory was developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeachdan DeFluer Melvin L. (1976), which focuses on the structural condition of a society that governs the likelihood of an effect of mass media. This theory departs from the nature of modern society, which is where the media is considered as an information system that has an important role in the process of maintaining, change, and conflict at the level of communities, groups, and individuals in social activities. Briefly, the study of these effects can be formulated can be formulated as follows:
1. Cognitive, create or eliminate ambiguity, the formation of attitudes, agenda-setting, the expansion of people's belief systems, affirmation / values clarification.
2. Affective, creating fear or anxiety, and increase or decrease the moral support.
3. Behavioral, turn or move or relieve, the formation of a particular issue or solution, reach or provide strategies for an activity as well causing generous behavior.

7. Theory of Constructivism

Jean Piaget and Leu Vygotski are two names that are always associated with constructivism. Experts constructivism holds that humans form their own version of reality, they doubled the variety of ways to find and describe something to learn first and second language acquisition.

Learning should be actively constructed by the learner itself than is described in detail by others. Thus acquired knowledge gained from experience. However, in building the experience students should have the opportunity to speak his mind, testing ideas through experiments and conversations or questions and answers, as well as to observe and compare the phenomenon that is being tested with other aspects of their lives. In addition, the teacher plays an important role in encouraging students to pay attention to the whole process of learning and offer a variety of ways and approaches exploration.

8. Nativism Theory

Chomsky in Hadley (1993: 48) which is the main character of this group said that the only man the only creature that God can communicate through verbal language. In addition, this language is also very complex and therefore it is impossible for people to learn another language of God's creatures. Chomsky also stated that every child born into the world to have lunch with what he calls "language acquisition tool" or LAD (language Acquisition Device). Hadley Chomsky (1993: 50) suggests that learning a language is a special competence is not just part of the learning in general.

9. Cognitivism Theory

According to Piaget in Mansoer Pateda (1990: 67), one of the leaders of this group said that the complex structure of the language is not something that is given by nature and not something that is learned through the environment. This structure was born and developed as a result of the continuous interaction between the level of children's cognitive function and has been available.

Or a change in the child's language development will depend on the extent of the child's cognitive engagement actively with the environment.

According to this flow we studied due to our ability to interpret the event or events that occur in the environment.
Language learning process occurs according to certain patterns of developmentally appropriate age.
Stages include:
a. Assimilation: the process of adjustment of new knowledge with the cognitive structure
b. Accommodation: cognitive structure adjustment process with new knowledge
c. Disquilibrasi: the process of acceptance of new knowledge that is not the same as what has been learned.
d. Equilibrasi: mental balancing process after a process of assimilation.

10. Theory Cybernetic

The term comes from the Greek cybernetics (cybernetics means the pilot). The term cybernetics translated into Indonesian be cybernetics, was first used in 1945 by Nobert Wiener in his book Cybernetics. Cybernetics is the theory of control systems based on communication (delivery information) between system and environment and between systems, control (feedback) from the system to function with due regard to the environment.

Along with the development of information technology, which was launched by scientists from the United States since 1966, the use of the computer as a medium for conveying information rapidly growing. This technology is also used for education, especially teachers communicate fellow relationship, looking for handouts (books teaching materials), explaining the subject matter or training, even for evaluating student learning outcomes. The basic principle of cybernetic theory that appreciates their 'difference', that something will have differences with others, or that something will change as the time passes. Learning is described as: Input => Process => Output.

11. Dependency Theory

Dependence on media theory initially expressed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin Defleur. As the uses and gratifications theory, this approach also rejected the initial hypothesis of a causal assumptions reinforcement. To overcome this drawback, the author takes a systems approach further. In their model they propose an integral relationship between the audience, the media. and the larger social system.
In line with what was said by the uses and gratifications theory, the theory predicts that the audience depends on the information that comes from the mass media in order to meet the needs of the respective audiences and achieve specific goals of the process of mass media consumption. However, it should be underlined that the audience does not have the same dependence on all media.

The second source of dependence is social conditions. This model shows the system media and social institutions that interact with the audience in creating needs and interests. In turn, this will affect the audience to choose a variety of media, so it is not the source of the mass media that create dependency, but rather social conditions.
To measure the effects of mass media on audiences, there are several methods that can be used, namely experimental research, survey and ethnographic research.



The theory of the spiral of silence (the spiral of silence) presented by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann (1976), deals with the question of how the formation of public opinion. This theory explains that the formation of public opinion is determined by a process of interplay between mass communication, interpersonal communication, and individual perceptions of opinion in relation to the opinions of others in the community.

13. Innoculation Theory

Theory inoculation or injection theory is initially displayed by this Mcguire take the analogy of medical events. People who are stricken with smallpox, polio injection. Given the vaccine to stimulate the body's defense mechanism. Similarly, people who do not have information about something or are not aware of the position on the matter, it will be easier to persuaded or induced. One way to make it so as not susceptible to the influence is "injected" with arguments reply (counterarguments).

14.Cultivation Theory 

Is one of the theories that attempt to explain the relationship between communication media (in this case television) with violence. This theory was put forward by George Gerbner, former Dean of the Faculty (High School) University of Pennsylvania Annenberg Communications, which is also the founder of Cultural Environment Movement, based on his study of television viewing behavior associated with materials of various television programs in the United States.

Cultivation theory basically states that the addicts (spectators heavy / heavy viewers) television excessive build confidence that "it's very scary." This is due to their belief that "what they see on television" which tends presents many violent events is "what they believe to be the case also in everyday life".


15. Bureaucracy Theory 

The theory of bureaucracy associated with community organizations arranged ideal. Bureaucracy is achieved through the formalization of rules, structures, and processes within the organization. Max Weber (1948) is known as the father figure of the bureaucracy. According to Weber, the ideal bureaucratic organization includes eight structural characteristics.

Bureaucracy offers many strong advantages in implementing the organization's standard practice, in addition it also can limit the members of organizations and individuals who work in it.

16. Transactional Analysis Theory 

Transactional analysis theory is a major work of Eric Berne (1964), which he wrote in the book Games People Play. Berne is a famous psychologist from the group Humanism. Transactional analysis theory is a theory of therapy is very popular and is used in almost all areas of consultation in the behavioral sciences. Transactional analysis theory has become one of the fundamental theory of interpersonal communication.
Always refers to the transaction said the exchange process in a relationship. In interpersonal communication also known transaction. Who exchanged messages is both verbal and nonverbal. Actual transactional analysis aims to examine in depth the process of transaction (anyone who is involved in it and what messages are exchanged).

17. The Expectacy Value Theory

Phillip Palmgreen trying to cope with the lack of attachment elements that exist in the uses and gratification theory by creating a theory called expectancy value theory (theory expectation value). In the framework of this theory, the satisfaction that you are looking for from the media is determined by your attitude towards your trust media about what the medium can give to you and your evaluation of these materials. For example, if you believe that situated comedy (sitcoms).

18. Diffusion of Innovations Theory

The most prominent diffusion theory proposed by Everett Rogers and colleagues. Rogers presents a fascinating descriptions of the deployment of the process of social change, which consists of the invention, diffusion (or communication), and consequences. Changes such as the above may occur internally from within the group or externally through contact with the agents of change from the outside world. Contact may occur spontaneously or from inadvertence, or the results of the plan part of outside agencies in various time can be short, but it often takes a long time.

In the diffusion of this innovation, the idea may take many years to be able to spread. Rogers stated that in reality, the purpose of diffusion research is to find the means to shorten this delay. Once established, an innovation will have consequences consequences - perhaps they work or not, directly or indirectly, real or latent (Rogers in Littlejohn, 1996: 336).

19.Cultural Norms Theory

The theory of cultural norms that Melvin DeFleur essence is that the mass media through selective presentation and emphasis on certain themes, creating impressions on the audience where the general cultural norms regarding the topic given weight was formed in certain ways. Therefore individual behavior is usually guided by cultural norms regarding a particular matter, children communication of media will indirectly affect behavior.

20. Standpoint Theory

This theory explains that the individual experience, knowledge, and communication behavior largely shaped by social groups in which they are active (Wood, JT, 1982, in the West, R., & Turner, LH, 2000). From this we can draw the framework of the systematic effect of the power of identity formation.

21. Systematic Behavior Theory

Clark C. Hull follow in the footsteps of Thorndike in his attempt to develop a theory of learning. The principles used are similar to what is proposed by the behaviorists are basic stimulus-response and the presence of reinforcement.

Clark C. Hull put forward his theory, namely that a requirement or a "state driven" (by motives, goals, intentions, aspirations, ambitions) must exist in a person who learns, before a response can be strengthened on the basis of a reduction in the requirement. In this case the efficiency of learning depends on the level of reduction and satisfaction motives that cause the learning effort by the responses of the individual made. Every object, event or situation may have value as an amplifier if it is associated with a reduction to a state of deprivation (lack of) on the individual self; ie if an object, event or situation he or she can answer the needs of the individual during a response.

Principle amplifier using the whole situation that motivates, ranging from biological drive that is the main need someone to the results that provide rewards for someone (for example: money, attention, affection, and high levels of social aspiration). Thus, the main principle is a necessity or motive must exist in someone before learning that happens; and that what is learned that must be observed by those who learn it as something that can reduce the power needs or satisfy their needs.

22. Conectionism Theory

According to the theory of trial and error (trying and failing), every organism when faced with a new situation will perform actions that are try to blindly if in an attempt to try it by chance there are actions that also meets the demands of the situation , then the act which happens to fit it then "held". Due to continuous exercise then used for time matching it acts more and more efficient. Thus, according to Thorndike's learning process through the process:
1) Trial and error (trying and failing), and
2) The law of effect; Which means that all behavior which means there is a satisfactory state (matched with the demands of the situation) will be remembered and studied with the best. While all behavior unpleasant consequences will be omitted or forgotten. This behavior occurs automatically. Automatism in learning it can be trained with certain conditions, the animals also in humans.

Thorndike's view that organisms (humans) as mechanism; just move or act if there is a stimulant that affects him. The occurrence of automatism in learning caused by Thorndike's law of effect. In everyday life the law of effect that can be seen in terms of reward or punishment, and also in terms of punishment in education. However, according to Thorndike more play a role in education is that it gives an award or reward and that is what is recommended. Because of the law of effect there was a relationship (connection) or the association between behavioral reactions that can bring something to the results of the cost (effect). Because of the connection between the reaction with the result that the theory Thorndike also called connectionism.

23. Administration Theory

Theorists administration is the first and most influential industrialist Henry Fayol French nationals, namely in 1916, Fayol identified several management principles. These principles have been widely applied in the design and practice of the organization and provide a strong influence on the design and administration of a modern industrial organization.

Administrative theory was developed as a prescriptive guidelines for appropriate use of the organization's management industry rules and authority directly. Here is shown the strengths and weaknesses of the theory of administration. The basic principle of the theory prescriptive administration makes the theory is very pragmatic and can be applied to business organizations. Previously, because there is no universal management principles that can be applied evenly to all the circumstances of the organization, administration theory principles can be misinterpreted, contradictory and did not fit in its use when dealing with problems of different organizations. In addition, as will be discussed in depth at the end of this chapter, the principles of the theory of administration, such as the principle of bureaucracy, often associated as a form of rigid and insensitive to the needs of the organization's members.

24. Functional Theory

With the emergence of constructivism in psychology, in recent years it became more obvious that learning languages is well developed under the notion of cognitive and memory structures.
Language researchers began to notice that the language is a manifestation of cognitive ability and effective to explore the world, to relate to others and also to themselves as human purposes. Moreover methods generative proposed under the auspices of nativism that is abstract, formal, explicit and logical, although the rule was more emphasis on language form and not at the level that is more functional than the established meaning of meaning that is formed from social interaction.

a. Cognition and language development
Piaget describe the study as a child interaction with its environment with a complementary interaction between the development of perceptual cognitive capacity to experience their language. The study deals with the relationship between cognitive development with first language acquisition.
According to him there are two things that determine the model:
1) On the functional principle, progress was followed by the development of communicative and conceptual capacity that operates in conjunction with the inner scheme conjunctions.
2) In the formal principle, followed by the development of perceptual capacity and processing information that works in conjunction and inner scheme grammar.

b. Social Interaction and Language Development
Lately more and more clear that the function of language is well developed outside the mind of cognitive and memory structures. Here it appears that the social constructivist perspective emphasizes functional. Language is essentially used for interactive communication. Therefore it is suitable for the study is the study of the communicative function of language, pragmatic and communicative function assessed with any variability.

25. Social Learning Theory

Learning theory Bandura (Albert Bandura: 1925) is a social learning theory or social cognitive and self-efficacy showed the importance of the process of observing and imitating the behavior, attitudes and emotions of others. Bandura's theory explains human behavior in the context of the interaction behavior of continuous reciprocal between kognitine behavioral and environmental influences. Factors which proceeds in the observation is of concern, given, motor production, motivation.

26.  Operant conditioning 

Skinner (1904-1990), considered a reward and rierforcement an important factor role in learning. Skinner argues that the purpose of psychology is to predict the behavior control. This theory pda teacher gift or reward high value so that the child will be more diligent. This theory is also called operant conditioning. . Operants conditioning is a process of strengthening operans behavior that can lead to such behavior can be repeated or disappear at will.

Operant conditing guarantee a response to stimuli. If it does not show the stimuli, the teachers can not lead students to direct behavior. Teachers have a role in controlling and directing the student in the learning process in order to reach the desired goal. 
Skinners learning principles are:
- The results of the study should be notified immediately if any students be corrected if it is given a booster.
- The learning process should follow the rhythm of the study. The subject matter is used as a module system.
- In the learning process more important activities of their own, do not use punishment. For the environment needs to be changed to avoid punishment.
- The desired behavior educators were given gifts and prizes should be given to the use of a variable ratio schedule reinforcer.
- In learning to use shaping.

27. Theory of Classical Conditioning (Pavlov and Watson)

According to the theory of conditioning (Ivan Petrovich Pavlo: 1849-1936), learning is a process of change that is due to the requirements (conditions) which then cause a reaction (response). To make someone that we must learn to give certain conditions. The most important thing in learning by conditioning theory is the existence of continuous exercises. The emphasis in this theory is learning things that happen automatically.
Adherents of this theory say that all human behavior. also is none other than the result of conditioning. That is the result rather than the exercises or habits react to requirements / specific stimuli that happened in his life.

The downside of this is the conditioning theory, this theory assumes that learning only happens automatically; liveliness and personal determination to disregard. The role of exercise / habits overstated. While we know that the act and do something, man is not solely dependent on external influences. I or her own personal role in selecting and determining the actions and reactions of what he will do. The conditioning theory is right for us to connect with animal life. In humans this theory we can only accept the things certain learning; for example in learning about the skills (abilities) and certain of habituation in small children.

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